On one hand, it is unclear whether treatment of ADHD with amphetamine-like stimulant medications for extended periods of time during child development can carry negative consequences, as manifested by an increase in use of illicit drugs, higher incidence of mania, psychosis, or other manifestations of psychopathology.
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Do stimulant drugs work for ADHD?
What is a negative aspect of using stimulant medications for ADHD treatment? These medications are sometimes used recreationally by both patients and non-patients. ADHD is characterized by a persistent pattern of difficulties ________
Are ADHD medications helpful or harmful to students?
May 01, 2012 · Amphetamine and related stimulant drugs are the most effective agents for treating ADHD. About 70% of children improve after being treated with stimulants. Medications, however, are not recommended for pre-school children with ADHD During the past 10 years, prescriptions for medications to treat ADHD have increased significantly in all age groups.
What is the pharmacological background of ADHD drugs?
True or False: stimulants prescribed to children and adolescents for ADHD treatment are controlled substances. TRUE!! they are Controlled Class II (CII) substances -State laws on quantity prescribed, separate prescription necessary, numerical or written quantity
How do ADHD medications work in the brain?
Stimulants aren’t habit-forming in the doses used to treat ADHD in children and teens. And there is no evidence that taking them leads to drug abuse. In …
Why are stimulants and hallucinogens used?
Stimulants (amphetamines and other drugs) and hallucinogens (LSD) are abused because of their euphoria or altered perception. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is usually considered to be a neurobehavioral developmental disorder.
What disorders can ADHD be associated with?
ADHD may accompany other disorders such as anxiety, depression, and Tourette's syndrome. ADHD
What is the genetics of ADHD?
Studies indicate that genetics are a factor in about 75% of ADHD cases. Individuals with ADHD are twice as likely to display a defective 7-repeat allele of the dopamine-4 receptor gene.
How many children with ADHD have symptoms in their teens?
An estimated 6080% of children with ADHD continue to have significant symptoms in adolescence, and about 30-50% of these individuals will have functionally impairing symptoms in adulthood.
Which drug is the most prescribed?
Methylphenidate is the most prescribed product (47%); amphetamine products, including mixed amphetamine salts, are second (33%); and atomoxetine was the third (16%) most prescribed drug.
How old do you have to be to have ADHD?
Adults with ADHD are diagnosed under the same criteria, including the stipulation that their symptoms must have been present prior to the age of seven.
What is restlessness characterized by?
Hyperactivity: restlessness, often characterized by an inability to sit still, fidgeting, squirminess, climbing on things, restless sleep.
What are the effects of ADHD medications?
For someone with ADHD, these medications boost the levels of certain brain chemicals, like dopamine and norepinephrine. They help nerves in your brain talk to one another. They’re also created in response to pleasant activities.
What are the side effects of stimulants?
Stimulant drugs are the treatment most often used for ADHD. They can help you manage symptoms, such as: Short attention span. Impulsive behavior. Hyperactivity. They may be the only treatment you use, or you can try them along with behavior therapy. These drugs ease ADHD symptoms in about 70% ...
How does medication help with social skills?
They can also help a person finish tasks and improve relationships. As long as the medication is taken, people have a better attention span and better behavior. Even though there is some debate about whether social skills or performance at school gets better, there are many people who benefit from them.
What is tics in psychosis?
Tics (body movements you can’t control that happen over and over) Tourette's syndrome, or someone in your family has it. A history of psychosis or are psychotic. Taken a type of medication called a monoamine oxidase inhibitor within 14 days of when you start taking the stimulant.
What is a methylphenidate?
Methylphenidate ( Concerta, Daytrana, Jornay PM, Metadate CD, Quillivant XR, Quillichew ER, Ritalin LA) Mixed salts of a single-entity amphetamine product ( Mydayis) Serdexmethylphenidate/ dexmethylphenidate (Azstarys) Most are pills, but sometimes medication can be in a patch that is put on the skin or in a liquid.
Can stimulants cause addiction?
Still, there is a potential for abuse and addiction with any stimulant medication. This is especially true if the person taking them has a history of substance abuse and addiction. It’s something you may want to take into consideration. Always give the medication exactly as prescribed.
Can medication be put on the skin?
Most are pills, but sometimes medication can be in a patch that is put on the skin or in a liquid.
What tests are not associated with ADHD?
Laboratory studies, MRI imaging, and intelligence testing are not necessarily associated with the diagnostic process for ADHD.) The parent of a 3-year-old child asks the nurse how attention deficit hyperactivity disorder would be made. The nurse tells the parent that a diagnosis is made by:
What are the three required findings for a diagnosis of ADHD?
The three required findings for a diagnosis of ADHD are limited attention span, an inability to stay on an assigned task, and excessive motor activity with the inability to sit still for more than a few minutes. Clients with ADHD are frequently labeled as poor achievers with difficulty learning.
How is ADHD diagnosed?
ADHD is diagnosed from a careful psychosocial history and questionnaires. The nurse is equally as qualified as the healthcare provider to provide strategies to help the client focus. Other mental health issues are diagnosed by a mental health specialist using interviews and questionnaires, not a physical exam.)
What are the risk factors for ADHD in children?
Risk factors for ADHD in children include improper parenting, exposure to high levels of lead, prenatal exposure to alcohol, and poor nutrition. Daily television exposure at ages 1-3 years, not limited exposure, is another risk factor of ADHD.)
Why is fatigue common in ADHD?
Fatigue is common among parents of children with ADHD because of the high energy and needs of their children. The priority nursing diagnosis is alterations in family processes, as the parents appear to need more emotional support. Increased risk for injury is less of a problem, since the parents understand proper administration and management of the client's medication. Impaired socialization and low self-esteem are also lower priorities because the client seems happy about school and friends.)
Why are socialization and self esteem lower priorities?
Impaired socialization and low self-esteem are also lower priorities because the client seems happy about school and friends. ) An 8-year-old boy with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) arrives at the clinic for a well visit with his parents.
What happens when you punish a child for unwanted behavior?
Punishment for unwanted behavior may decrease the child's self-esteem. The family should concentrate on positive reinforcement when the child shows desired behaviors.) The family of a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder tells the nurse the child's behavior at home is difficult to manage.
What are the effects of prescription stimulants on ADHD?
Neuropsychological studies of ADHD children and adults indicate impairments in many cognitive areas including selective attention, memory, reaction time, information processing speed, and executive control function such as set-shifting, and working memory.
How do prescription stimulants help students?
The benefits of prescription stimulants for enhancing classroom manageability and increasing attention and academic productivity in children are well established. Prescription stimulants may increase the quality of note taking, scores on quizzes and worksheets, writing output, and homework completion.
What are stimulants used for?
Prescription stimulants are often used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Drugs like methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), and dextroamphetamine-amphetamine (Adderall) help people with ADHD feel more focused. However, misuse of stimulants by ADHD and nonaffected individuals has dramatically increased over recent years based on students' misconceptions or simple lack of knowledge of associated risks. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the use and increasing misuse of prescription stimulants among high school and college students and athletes. Given the widespread belief that stimulants enhance performance, there are in fact only a few studies reporting the cognitive enhancing effects of stimulants in ADHD and nonaffected individuals. Student athletes should be apprised of the very serious consequences that can emerge when stimulants are used to improve sports performance. Moreover, misuse of stimulants is associated with dangers including psychosis, myocardial infarction, cardiomyopathy, and even sudden death. As ADHD medications are prescribed for long-term treatment, there is a need for long-term safety studies and education on the health risks associated with misuse is imperative.
Why do people use stimulants?
Stimulants are especially popular at the end of a school term when students will often use the drugs to stay awake through the night to study for exams or complete academic projects. In fact, prescription stimulants are most commonly misused to enhance school performance. According to a Web survey of 115 ADHD-diagnosed college students, enhancing the ability to study outside of class was the primary motive for misuse ( Rabiner et al. 2009 ). Pressures such as a persistent desire to succeed academically, poor sleep habits due to large workloads, and the persistence of underlying social and financial demands may place students at an increased risk for misuse of various drugs, including stimulants ( Kadison 2005; Teter et al. 2005 ). Students who misused ADHD medications generally felt that doing so was helpful. Thus, prescription stimulants developed to help children with ADHD improve their focus and attention are often misused by the patient, especially ADHD patients with conduct disorder or comorbid substance abuse ( Kollins 2008 ). Moreover, students without ADHD misuse stimulants to improve performance or to induce euphoria. A web-based survey administered to medical and health profession students found that the most common reason for nonprescription stimulant use was to focus and concentrate during studying (93.5%) ( Herman et al. 2011 ). In this study, approximately 10.4% of students surveyed (45.2% female; 83.9% male; 83.9% Caucasian) have either used a stimulant or are currently using prescription stimulants, and the most commonly abused stimulant (71.4%) was d-AMP. A recent survey found that 70% of dental and dental hygiene students used a prescription stimulant nonmedically to improve attention and/or concentration ( McNiel et al. 2011 ). Student pharmacists ( Lord et al. 2003) and medical students ( Tuttle et al. 2010) are also using stimulants to improve concentration and academic performance.
What are the consequences of ADHD?
Other consequences associated with ADHD include dangerous driving, impaired peer relationships, delinquent behavior, and impulsive sexuality ( Putukian et al. 2011; Visser et al. 2012 ). Moreover, when ADHD is untreated, there is increased prevalence of certain psychological disorders (e.g., major depression, bipolar disorder, conduct disorder, oppositional-defiant disorder, antisocial personality, substance use, and anxiety) ( Faraone et al. 1997; Rasmussen and Gillberg 2000; Kollins et al. 2005; Biederman et al. 2006 ). However, early treatment may decrease negative outcomes of ADHD including the rate of conduct disorder and adult antisocial personality disorder ( Dopheide and Pliszka 2009 ).
What is the role of dopamine in ADHD?
Although ADHD is a multifactorial disorder, disrupted dopamine (DA) neurotransmission plays an important role in its pathophysiology. In addition, polymorphisms in the dopamine D1 receptor (DRD1) are associated with the disorder ( Misener et al. 2004 ). MPH and d-AMP both enhance DA signaling in the brain. MPH increases DA by blocking dopamine transporters (DATs) and AMP by releasing DA from the nerve terminal using the DAT as carrier ( Kuczenski and Segal 1997 ). In healthy controls and in adolescents and adults with ADHD ( Rosa-Neto et al. 2005; Volkow et al. 2007 ), MPH significantly increased DA in the ventral striatum (VS) ( Volkow et al. 2012 ), a crucial brain region involved with motivation and reward (Wise 2002 ). Moreover, intravenous MPH-induced increases in DA in the VS were correlated with improvement in symptoms of inattention after long-term oral MPH treatment. Historically, the core feature of ADHD has been characterized as one of attention deficit, but increasing evidence suggests that a reward and motivation deficit may be of equal importance. It has been proposed that increasing DA in the VS would enhance the saliency of the task, thus improving attention in ADHD ( Volkow et al. 2012 ). Intravenous MPH also significantly increased DA in the prefrontal and temporal cortices that were associated with decreased ratings of inattention, which may be therapeutically relevant.
What is cognitive control?
Cognitive control is a broad concept that refers to guidance of cognitive processes in situations where the most natural, automatic, or available action is not necessarily the correct one ( Smith and Farah 2011 ). Attention and working memory are thought to rely on cognitive control and loss of cognitive control is a major component of many neuropsychiatric diseases such as schizophrenia. The effects of MPH and d-AMP have been determined on several tests used to study cognitive control, including the go/no-go task, the stop-signal task, and the Flanker test. In general, the effects of stimulants on cognitive control are not robust, but MPH and d-AMP appear to enhance cognitive control in some tasks for some people, especially those less likely to perform well on cognitive control tasks ( Smith and Farah 2011 ). The results of these studies currently provide limited support for the enthusiastic portrayals of cognitive enhancement.
What are the two types of medications used for ADHD?
Two classes of medication are available for treating ADHD: Stimulant medications, such as dextroamphetamine-based drugs (Adderall, Vyvanese) and methylphenidate-based drugs (Concerta, Daytrana, Ritalin). They are also available as generics. Nonstimulant medication, such as the antidepressant bupropion (Wellbutrin and generic) ...
How satisfied are parents with ADHD medications?
Taking all this into consideration, how satisfied are parents with medications their children are taking for ADHD? Overall, only 41 percent were highly satsfied (16 percent were "completely satisfied" and 25 percent were "very satisfied"). About one-third (29 percent) were dissatisfied and the remainder were fairly satisfied (30 percent). There were no differences in overall satisfaction between those groups trying amphetamines or methylphenidates.
How long does ADHD last?
But there is no good evidence showing that these benefits last longer than about two years , and the long-term consequences of taking stimulants for years on end have not been fully evaluated in studies.#N#Fortunately, many children with ADHD—even when they are not treated—improve as they reach the teenage years and early 20s. But the disorder can persist into adolescence and adulthood about 30 percent to 70 percent of the time.#N#All of the ADHD stimulant medicines have been linked to rare cases of heart attack, stroke, and sudden death, so children should first be evaluated for underlying heart problems.#N#The severity of symptoms and abnormal behavior patterns in children and teenagers with ADHD varies widely. Diagnosis, too, can be quite subjective, varying from doctor to doctor. Because diagnosis of the condition can be difficult, and a variety of medical and psychiatric disorders can cause symptoms that mimic ADHD, many children and teenagers taking medication might not have ADHD or have only mild symptoms that do not require it. Be sure to get a diagnosis from a physician or mental-health professional with expertise in ADHD and a second opinion if you have doubts. Even if your child meets the criteria for ADHD, he or she might not need a drug. A pediatrician can refer you to a mental-health specialist (some specialize in ADHD), who should begin by ruling out other possible reasons for the behavior.#N#The most effective strategy for treating ADHD consists of more than one approach. There is some evidence that the combination of behavioral therapy with medication can work better than drugs alone for some children. But behavior therapy alone does not work for all children, especially those who have severe symptoms.#N#As with most disorders for which multiple medications are available, there are no definitive comparison studies to show which ones work best in specific circumstances, according to Michael L. Goldstein, M.D., a child neurologist with Western Neurological Associates in Salt Lake City, and a former vice president of the American Academy of Neurology.#N#Two classes of medication are available for treating ADHD:
Why are second line medications prescribed?
Parents of children who tried second-line medications, which are often prescribed because of concerns about the side effects associated with amphetamines and methylphenidates, also reported a high frequency of side effects, but they were somewhat less frequent than with the other medications.
How long does methylphenidate stay in your system?
Standard release means that the medication will be in your child's system for a given period of time (usually about three hours), at which point another dose needs to be administered to maintain the effect.
What are the side effects of taking amphetamines?
And among those who reported no longer taking a specific medication, 35 percent said it was because of side effects. Decreased appetite, sleep problems, weight loss, irritability, and upset stomach were ...
How old were children when they were prescribed medication?
The average age of the children who had tried medication was 13, while the average age of those who had never tried medication was 10.
How to test whether a psychological treatment is effective?
In order to test whether a particular psychological treatment is effective, you would have to include. 1)an experimental group that receives the treatment and a control group that receives a placebo. 2)an experimental group that receives a placebo and a control group that receives the treatment.
What is the observation that not all people with abnormal behavior have similar symptoms?
1)the observation that not all people with abnormal behavior have similar symptoms. 2)a factor analysis of a large number of abnormal traits and behaviors. 3)genetic studies that showed different patterns for different symptoms. 4)a failure to link mental disorders to physical symptoms.
Why is autism increasing?
2)an increase in susceptibility to the disorder. 3)changes in the levels of environmental toxins linked to the disorder.
What is the most important factor in the development of mental illness?
1)mental dysfunction is an outgrowth of cultural mediation between thoughts and behaviors. 2)the family context is the most important factor in the development of mental illness. 3)abnormal behavior is learned. 4)the primary causes of mental illness are conflicts between the unconscious and conscious mind.
What is the DSM-5 alternative model?
1)eliminates the cluster approach in favor of a dimensional approach. 2)describes personality disorders as excessive personality traits that interfere with functioning.
How does an anxiolytic work?
When an anxiolytic is used to treat generalized anxiety disorder, 1)the brain is permanently rewired to reduce the anxiety. 2)the client fares better in the long term than with other treatments. 3)the anxiety is alleviated for a short period of time.
Can a brain stimulation therapy be used outside of a hospital setting?
4)They both can be used outside of a hospital setting and help patients who do not respond to drug treatme. 2.