Veterinary medicine
- Sources of stem cells. Veterinary applications of stem cell therapy as a means of tissue regeneration have been largely...
- Bone repair. Bone has a unique and well documented natural healing process that normally is sufficient to repair...
- Ligament and tendon repair. Autologous stem cell-based treatments for ligament injury, tendon injury,...
What are the benefits and issues with using stem cells?
Mar 19, 2022 · In stem cell transplants, stem cells replace cells damaged by chemotherapy or disease or serve as a way for the donor's immune system to fight some types of cancer and blood-related diseases, such as leukemia, lymphoma, neuroblastoma and multiple myeloma.
What diseases have stem cells cured?
Types of stem cell transplants. autologous, which means the stem cells come from you, the patient. allogeneic, which means the stem cells come from someone else. The donor may be a blood relative but can also be someone who is not related. syngeneic, which means the stem cells come from your ...
What are facts about stem cell therapy?
May 15, 2020 · Stem cell-based therapies are defined as any treatment for a disease or a medical condition that fundamentally involves the use of any type of viable human stem cells including embryonic stem cells (ESCs), iPSCs and adult stem cells for autologous and allogeneic therapies . Stem cells offer the perfect solution when there is a need for tissue and organ transplantation …
What conditions can stem cell therapy treat?
Today, doctors routinely use stem cells that come from bone marrow or blood in transplant procedures to treat patients with cancer and disorders …
Why are stem cells important?
Blood-forming stem cells are important because they grow into different types of blood cells. The main types of blood cells are: White blood cells, which are part of your immune system and help your body fight infection. Red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout your body. Platelets, which help the blood clot.
What is stem cell transplant?
Stem cell transplants help restore blood-forming stem cells in people who have had theirs destroyed by certain cancer treatments. Stem cell transplants are procedures that restore blood-forming stem cells in people who have had theirs destroyed by the very high doses of chemotherapy or radiation therapy that are used to treat certain cancers.
What is the difference between autologous and allogeneic stem cells?
Transplants can be: Autologous, which means the stem cells come from you, the patient. Allogeneic, which means the stem cells come from someone else. The donor may be a blood relative but can also be someone who is not related. Syngeneic, which means the stem cells come from your identical twin, if you have one.
Why does graft versus tumor occur?
Graft-versus-tumor occurs when white blood cells from your donor (the graft) attack any cancer cells that remain in your body (the tumor) after high-dose treatments. This effect improves the success of the treatments.
What happens if you have an allogeneic transplant?
If you have an allogeneic transplant, you might develop a serious problem called graft-versus-host disease. Graft-versus-host disease can occur when white blood cells from your donor (the graft) recognize cells in your body (the host) as foreign and attack them. This problem can cause damage to your skin, liver, intestines, and many other organs. It can occur a few weeks after the transplant or much later. Graft-versus-host disease can be treated with steroids or other drugs that suppress your immune system.
Where do you go to get an allogeneic stem cell transplant?
When you need an allogeneic stem cell transplant, you will need to go to a hospital that has a specialized transplant center. The National Marrow Donor Program® maintains a list of transplant centers in the United States. that can help you find a transplant center.
What type of cancer is stem cell transplant?
Who Receives Stem Cell Transplants. Stem cell transplants are most often used to help people with leukemia and lymphoma. They may also be used for neuroblastoma and multiple myeloma. Stem cell transplants for other types of cancer are being studied in clinical trials, which are research studies involving people.
What is stem cell therapy?
Stem cell-based therapies are defined as any treatment for a disease or a medical condition that fundamentally involves the use of any type of viable human stem cells including embryonic stem cells (ESCs), iPSCs and adult stem cells for autologous and allogeneic therapies (8). Stem cells offer the perfect solution when there is a need for tissue and organ transplantation through their ability to differentiate into the specific cell types that are required for repair of diseased tissues.
What are the ethical issues faced by stem cell therapy?
Stem cell-based therapies face many obstacles that need to be urgently addressed. The most persistent concern is the ethical conflict regarding the use of ESCs. As previously mentioned, ESCs are far superior regarding their potency; however, their derivation requires destruction human embryos. True, the discovery of iPSCs overcame this concern; nevertheless, iPSCs themselves currently face another ethical controversy of their own which addresses their unlimited capacity of differentiation with concerns that these cells could one day be applied in human cloning. The use of iPSCs in therapy is still considered a high-risk treatment modality, since transplantation of these cells could induce tumor formation. Such challenge is currently addressed through developing optimized protocols to ensure their safety in addition to developing global clinical-grade iPSCs cell lines before these cells are available for clinical use (61). As for MSCs, these cells have been universally considered safe, however continuous monitoring and prolonged follow-up should be the focus of future research to avoid the possibility of tumor formation after treatments (62). Finally, it could be postulated that one of the most challenging ethical issues faced in the field of stem cell-based therapies at the moment, is the increasing number of clinics offering unproven stem cell-based treatments. Researchers are thus morally obligated to ensure that ethical considerations are not undermined in pursuit of progress in clinical translation.
What is PD in ESC cells?
PD is characterized by a rapid loss of midbrain dopaminergic neurons. The first attempt for using human ESC cells to treat PD was via the generation of dopaminergic-like neurons, later human iPSCs was proposed as an alternative to overcome ESCs controversies (27). Both cells presented hope for obtaining an endless source of dopaminergic neurons instead of the previously used fetal brain tissues. Subsequently, protocols that mimicked the development of dopaminergic neurons succeeded in generating dopaminergic neurons similar to that of the midbrain which were able to survive, integrate and functionally mature in animal models of PD preclinically (28). Based on the research presented by different groups; the “Parkinson’s Global Force” was formed which aimed at guiding researchers to optimize their cell characterization and help promote the clinical progress toward successful therapy. Recently, In August 2018, Shinya Yamanka initiated the first approved clinical trial to treat PD using iPSCs. Seven patients suffering from moderate PD were recruited (29). Donor matched allogeneic cells were used to avoid any genetic influence of the disease. The strategy behind the trial involved the generation of dopaminergic progenitors followed by surgical transplantation into the brains of patients by a special device. In addition, immunosuppressant medications were given to avoid any adverse reaction. Preliminary results so far revealed the safety of the treatment.
Why is translational research important?
The importance of translational research lies in it’s a role as a filter to ensure that only safe and effective therapies reach the clinic (23). It bridges the gap from bench to bed. Currently, some stem cell-based therapies utilizing adult stem cells are clinically available and mainly include bone marrow transplants of hematopoietic stem cells and skin grafts for severe burns (23). To date, there are more than 3,000 trials involving the use of adult stem cells registered in WHO International Clinical Trials Registry. Additionally, initial trials involving the new and appealing iPSCs based therapies are also registered. In fact, the first clinical attempt employing iPSCs reported successful results in treating macular degeneration (24). Given the relative immaturity in the field of cellular therapy, the outcomes of such trials shall facilitate the understanding of the timeframes needed to achieve successful therapies and help in better understanding of the diseases. However, it is noteworthy that evaluation of stem cell-based therapies is not an easy task since transplantation of cells is ectopic and may result in tumor formation and other complications. This accounts for the variations in the results reported from previous reports. The following section discusses the published data of some of the most important clinical trials involving the use of different types of stem cells both in medicine and in dentistry.
Why are beta cells destructed?
Pancreatic beta cells are destructed in type 1 diabetes mellitus, because of disorders in the immune system while in type 2 insulin insufficiency is caused by failure of the beta-cell to normally produce insulin. In both cases the affected cell is the beta cell, and since the pancreas does not efficiently regenerate islets from endogenous adult stem cells, other cell sources were tested (38). Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are considered the cells of choice for beta cell replacement strategies (39). Currently, there are a few industry-sponsored clinical trials that are registered targeting beta cell replacement using ESCs. These trials revolve around the engraftment of insulin-producing beta cells in an encapsulating device subcutaneously to protect the cells from autoimmunity in patients with type 1 diabetes (40). The company ViaCyteTMin California recently initiated a phase I/II trial ({"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT02239354","term_id":"NCT02239354"}}NCT02239354) in 2014 in collaboration with Harvard University. This trial involves 40 patients and employs two subcutaneous capsules of insulin producing beta cells generated from ESCs. The results shall be interesting due to the ease of monitoring and recovery of the transplanted cells. The preclinical studies preceding this trial demonstrated successful glycemic correction and the devices were successfully retrieved after 174 days and contained viable insulin-producing cells (41).
What is cell based therapy?
Cell-based therapy as a modality of regenerative medicine is considered one of the most promising disciplines in the fields of modern science & medicine. Such an advanced technology offers endless possibilities for transformative and potentially curative treatments for some of humanities most life threatening diseases. Regenerative medicine is rapidly becoming the next big thing in health care with the particular aim of repairing and possibly replacing diseased cells, tissues or organs and eventually retrieving normal function. Fortunately, the prospect of regenerative medicine as an alternative to conventional drug-based therapies is becoming a tangible reality by the day owing to the vigorous commitment of the research communities in studying the potential applications across a wide range of diseases like neurodegenerative diseases and diabetes, among many others (1).
Can stem cells be used in dentistry?
Some of these trials resulted in remarkable impact on various diseases. In this review, the advances and challenges for the development of stem-cell-based therapies are described, with focus on the use of stem cells in dentistry in addition to the advances reached in regenerative treatment modalities in several diseases. The limitations of these treatments and ongoing challenges in the field are also discussed while shedding light on the ethical and regulatory challenges in translating autologous stem cell-based interventions, into safe and effective therapies.
How does stem cell therapy help?
Stem cell treatment, however, helps mitigate this risk substantially by giving the patient an infusion of new cells following those necessarily high doses of chemotherapy. The patient first receives the chemo, then the stem cell infusion to help them repopulate their blood cell counts. Many patients show great promise of living long and healthy lives following the treatment.
Why are stem cells important?
For obvious reasons, stem cells seem like a strong possibility for repairing heart tissue and helping to overcome the intermediate symptoms that eventually lead to heart disease or cardiac arrest.
What are the different types of stem cells?
The main types of stem cells include: 1 Multipotent stem cells: These cells are usually in one class, such as blood cells, cardiac cells, or nerve cells. They have the ability to turn into multiple types of stem cell within that class of tissues. 2 Pluripotent stem cells: These stem cells have the ability to turn into any cell in the entire human body. However, until recently, these have only existed in embryos, the use of which has historically generated serious controversy. Luckily, new research has freed up pluripotent stem cells from much less polarizing sources, including donated cord blood from umbilical cords post-birth, and from adult stem cells. Science no longer needs to use embryonic stem cells, though they are still a valuable source of research and medicine. 3 Totipotent stem cells: These are found only in the first few divisions of the human embryo. Such cells are a step above pluripotent because they can specialize not only in every cell of the human body but into placental and umbilical cells as well. 4 Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells): Researchers have developed new methods of turning adult cells into pluripotent cells by encouraging them to develop backwards from more specialized cells into less specialized cells. They do so through a variety of mechanisms and can harvest the starting cells from many places in the body.
What type of stem cell can turn into any cell in the human body?
They have the ability to turn into multiple types of stem cell within that class of tissues. Pluripotent stem cells: These stem cells have the ability to turn into any cell in the entire human body.
Why do stem cells become cartilage cells?
Because they can transform into many different types of specialized cell, stem cells have the ability to become cartilage cells, renewing what was once unrenewable. The procedure is offered in many clinics within and outside the United States and typically uses adipose cells as the stem cell source.
Where do autologous stem cells come from?
Autologous stem cells are those that come from the patient’s own body. Physicians can source them anywhere, from blood or other tissues, but they still count as autologous so long as the patient themselves is the source and recipient of the stem cells. Allogeneic stem cells, on the other hand, come from donors – usually family members, but sometimes anonymous donors who have given their stem cells to a bank.
What is the power of stem cells?
The power of stem cells is that they are a renewable resource. As undifferentiated cells, they can turn into a wide variety of other cell types. Their power varies depending on how specialized they are, to begin with.
What is stem cell therapy?
Stem-cell therapy is the use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or condition. As of 2016. [update] , the only established therapy using stem cells is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. This usually takes the form of a bone-marrow transplantation, but the cells can also be derived from umbilical cord blood.
Why are stem cells being studied?
Stem cells are being studied for a number of reasons. The molecules and exosomes released from stem cells are also being studied in an effort to make medications. In addition to the functions of the cells themselves, paracrine soluble factors produced by stem cells, known as the stem cell secretome, have been found to be another mechanism by which stem cell-based therapies mediate their effects in degenerative, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases.
What is prochymal stem cell therapy?
It is an allogenic stem therapy based on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from the bone marrow of adult donors. MSCs are purified from the marrow, cultured and packaged, with up to 10,000 doses derived from a single donor. The doses are stored frozen until needed.
How many discrepancies were found in 2013 studies of autologous bone marrow stem cells on ventricular
In 2013, studies of autologous bone-marrow stem cells on ventricular function were found to contain "hundreds" of discrepancies. Critics report that of 48 reports, just five underlying trials seemed to be used, and that in many cases whether they were randomized or merely observational accepter-versus-rejecter, was contradictory between reports of the same trial. One pair of reports of identical baseline characteristics and final results, was presented in two publications as, respectively, a 578-patient randomized trial and as a 391-subject observational study. Other reports required (impossible) negative standard deviations in subsets of people, or contained fractional subjects, negative NYHA classes. Overall, many more people were reported as having receiving stem cells in trials, than the number of stem cells processed in the hospital's laboratory during that time. A university investigation, closed in 2012 without reporting, was reopened in July 2013.
How do stem cells help with wound healing?
Stem cells can also be used to stimulate the growth of human tissues. In an adult, wounded tissue is most often replaced by scar tissue, which is characterized in the skin by disorganized collagen structure, loss of hair follicles and irregular vascular structure. In the case of wounded fetal tissue, however, wounded tissue is replaced with normal tissue through the activity of stem cells. A possible method for tissue regeneration in adults is to place adult stem cell "seeds" inside a tissue bed "soil" in a wound bed and allow the stem cells to stimulate differentiation in the tissue bed cells. This method elicits a regenerative response more similar to fetal wound-healing than adult scar tissue formation. Researchers are still investigating different aspects of the "soil" tissue that are conducive to regeneration. Because of the general healing capabilities of stem cells, they have gained interest for the treatment of cutaneous wounds, such as in skin cancer.
Why is the immune system so specific?
Diseases of hematopoietic cells are diagnosed and classified via a subspecialty of pathology known as hematopathology. The specificity of the immune cells is what allows recognition of foreign antigens, causing further challenges in the treatment of immune disease. Identical matches between donor and recipient must be made for successful transplantation treatments, but matches are uncommon, even between first-degree relatives. Research using both hematopoietic adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells has provided insight into the possible mechanisms and methods of treatment for many of these ailments.
How are red blood cells grown?
In this process, HSCs are grown together with stromal cells, creating an environment that mimics the conditions of bone marrow, the natural site of red-blood-cell growth.
What are stem cells?
Sometimes called the body’s “master cells,” stem cells are the cells that develop into blood, brain, bones, and all of the body’s organs. They have the potential to repair, restore, replace, and regenerate cells, and could possibly be used to treat many medical conditions and diseases. But the U.S. Food and Drug Administration is concerned ...
What is the FDA's response to stem cell products?
When stem cell products are used in unapproved ways— or when they are processed in ways that are more than minimally manipulated, which relates to the nature and degree of processing—the FDA may take (and has already taken) a variety of administrative and judicial actions, including criminal enforcement, depending on the violations involved.
What are the safety concerns of unproven treatments?
Other potential safety concerns for unproven treatments include: Administration site reactions, The ability of cells to move from placement sites and change into inappropriate cell types or multiply, Failure of cells to work as expected, and.
What is the FDA approved product?
About FDA-approved Products Derived from Stem Cells. The only stem cell-based products that are FDA-approved for use in the United States consist of blood-forming stem cells (hematopoietic progenitor cells) derived from cord blood. These products are approved for limited use in patients with disorders that affect the body system ...
Where do stem cells come from?
The FDA has the authority to regulate stem cell products in the United States. Today, doctors routinely use stem cells that come from bone marrow or blood in transplant procedures to treat patients with cancer and disorders of the blood and immune system. Electron micrograph of stem cells, color-enhanced for visual clarity.
Is bone marrow FDA approved?
These products are approved for limited use in patients with disorders that affect the body system that is involved in the production of blood (called the “hematopoietic” system). These FDA-approved stem cell products are listed on the FDA website. Bone marrow also is used for these treatments but is generally not regulated by the FDA for this use.
Do investigational products have to go through a FDA review?
With limited exceptions, investigational products must also go through a thorough FDA review process as investigators prepare to determine the safety and effectiveness of products in well-controlled human studies, called clinical trials. The FDA has reviewed many stem cell products for use in these studies.
What is the FDA approved treatment for stem cell transplant?
Currently, the only stem cell-based treatment that is routinely reviewed and approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is hematopoietic (or blood) stem cell transplantation.
What is the website called that focuses on stem cells?
You can learn a lot about stem cell research and its potential to impact human health on the website " A Closer Look at Stem Cells ," which is designed, maintained and hosted by the International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR).
Who can answer questions about clinical trials?
If you have questions about specific clinical trials, the only people who can answer them properly are those who are listed as the primary contact for each study listed on ClinicalTrials.gov.
Is stem cell therapy still experimental?
Stem cell-based therapies for all other conditions are still experimental. The website ClinicalTrials.gov has the most up-to-date information about clinical trials that are testing whether stem cell-based therapies are safe and effective in humans.
Where should stem cell treatments be performed?
Stem cell treatments are all specialist procedures. They should be performed only in specialized centres authorized by national health authorities. Some advertise so-called stem cell products that have not been through rigorous national and european regulatory approval and are not based on sound scientific rationale.
When should stem cell treatments be considered experimental?
As with any breakthrough technology, all treatments should be considered experimental until they have successfully passed the stages of clinical trials required to demonstrate safety and clinical benefit. Only then can a treatment be approved for widespread use. Stem cell treatments are all specialist procedures.
How do stem cells help the cornea?
Clinical studies in patients have shown that tissue stem cells taken from an area of the eye called the limbus can be used to repair damage to the cornea – the transparent layer at the front of the eye. If the cornea is severely damaged, for example by a chemical burn, limbal stem cells can be taken from the patient, multiplied in the lab and transplanted back onto the patient’s damaged eye (s) to restore sight. However, this can only help patients who have some undamaged limbal stem cells remaining in one of their eyes. The treatment has been shown to be safe and effective in clinical trials and has now been approved by regulatory authorities for widespread use in Europe. Limbal stem cells are one of only three stem cell therapies (treatments utilising blood stem cells and skin stem cells being the other two) that are available through healthcare providers in Europe.
What is ESC in clinical trials?
Recently, human ESCs (embryonic stem cells ) that meet the strict quality requirements for use in patients have been produced. These ‘clinical grade’ human ESCs have been approved for use in a very small number of early clinical trials. One example is a clinical trial carried out by The London Project to Cure Blindness, using ESCs to produce a particular type of eye cell for treatment of patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The biotechnology company AIRM is also using human ESCs to make cells for patients with AMD and another eye disease: Stargardt’s macular dystrophy. Early clinical trials for both conditions are now completed. Before these therapies can be offered to a wide range of patients, currently ongoing long term studies need to test them for their safety, security and efficiency. If the initial clinical trials are successful in terms of safety and clinical benefit, ESC research may soon begin to deliver its first clinical applications.
What do we know about stem cells?
The most well-established and widely used stem cell treatment is the transplantation of blood stem cells to treat diseases and conditions of the blood and immune system, or to restore the blood system after treatments for specific cancers. Further, since the 1980s, skin stem cells have been used to grow skin grafts ...
Why are stem cells important?
In recent years stem cells were used as a powerful tool for establishing patient-derived disease models both to understand the molecular basis for disorders and to use them for drug development (in a dish). Genetic disorders don’t always arise from a mutation in a single gene (so called monogenic disorders) or in a bigger building block of the genome, a chromosome (so called chromosomal disorders). A lot of diseases are more complex and are caused by mutations in a number of genes at the same time. These are difficult to model, even with modern genome engineering techniques. iPSCs, however, can help in these situations.
What are skin stem cells used for?
Further, since the 1980s, skin stem cells have been used to grow skin grafts for patients with severe burns on very large areas of the body. A new stem-cell-based treatment to repair damage to the cornea (the surface of the eye) after an injury like a chemical burn has recently received marketing approval in Europe.
How many stem cell therapies are there?
A 2013 report from the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America lists 69 cell therapies as having clinical trials under review with the FDA, including 15 in phase 3 trials. The therapeutic categories represented in these trials include cardiovascular disease, skin diseases, cancer and related conditions, digestive disorders, transplantation, genetic disorders, musculoskeletal disorders, and eye conditions, among others.14
Why are stem cells used in human body?
Many degenerative and currently untreatable diseases in humans arise from the loss or malfunction of specific cell types in the body.9While donated organs and tissues are often used to replace damaged or dysfunctional ones, the supply of donors does not meet the clinical demand.18Stem cells seemingly provide a renewable source of replacement cells and tissues for transplantation and the potential to treat a myriad of conditions.
Why are iPSCs important?
Although most of the media attention around stem cells has focused on regenerative medicine and cell therapy, researchers are finding that iPSCs, in particular, hold significant promise as tools for disease modeling.21,22A major barrier to research is often inaccessibility of diseased tissue for study.23Because iPSCs can be derived directly from patients with a given disease, they display all of the molecular characteristics associated with the disease, thereby serving as useful models for the study of pathological mechanisms.
What is the NIH registry for human embryonic stem cells?
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) Human Embryonic Stem Cell Registry6lists the hESCs eligible for use in NIH-funded research. At this writing, 283 eligible lines met the NIH’s strict ethical guidelines for human stem cell research pertaining to the embryo donation process.7For instance, to get a human embryonic stem cell line approved, grant applicants must show that the embryos were “donated by individuals who sought reproductive treatment and who gave voluntary written consent for the human embryos to be used for research purposes.” 8The ESCs used in research are not derived from eggs fertilized in a woman’s body.9
What are the two main types of stem cells?
There are two main types of stem cells: 1) embryonic stem cells (ESCs), found in the embryo at very early stages of development; and 2) somatic or adult stem cells (ASCs), found in specific tissues throughout the body after development .9
How to derive patient specific stem cells?
In addition to using iPSC technology, it is also possible to derive patient-specific stem cell lines using an approach called somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). This process involves adding the nuclei of adult skin cells to unfertilized donor oocytes. As reported in spring 2014, a team of scientists from the New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute and Columbia University Medical Center used SCNT to create the first disease-specific embryonic stem cell line from a patient with type-1 diabetes. The insulin-producing cells have two sets of chromosomes (the normal number in humans) and could potentially be used to develop personalized cell therapies.27
Why is stem cell research important?
The study of stem cells offers great promise for better understanding basic mechanisms of human development, as well as the hope of harnessing these cells to treat a wide range of diseases and conditions.2How ever, stem cell research— particularly human embryonic stem cell (hESC) research, which involves the destruction of days-old embryos—has also been a source of ongoing ethical, religious, and political controversy.2
Overview
Research
Stem cells are being studied for a number of reasons. The molecules and exosomes released from stem cells are also being studied in an effort to make medications. In addition to the functions of the cells themselves, paracrine soluble factors produced by stem cells, known as the stem cell secretome, have been found to be another mechanism by which stem cell-based therapies mediate their effects in degenerative, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases.
Medical uses
For over 30 years, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) has been used to treat people with conditions such as leukaemia and lymphoma; this is the only widely practiced form of stem-cell therapy. During chemotherapy, most growing cells are killed by the cytotoxic agents. These agents, however, cannot discriminate between the leukaemia or neoplastic cells, and the hematopoietic stem cellswithin the bone marrow. This is the side effect of conventional chemot…
Veterinary medicine
Research has been conducted on horses, dogs, and cats can benefit the development of stem cell treatments in veterinary medicine and can target a wide range of injuries and diseases such as myocardial infarction, stroke, tendon and ligament damage, osteoarthritis, osteochondrosis and muscular dystrophyboth in large animals, as well as humans. While investigation of cell-based therapeutics generally reflects human medical needs, the high degree of frequency and severity …
Society and culture
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was an initial wave of companies and clinics offering stem cell therapy, while not substantiating health claims or having regulatory approval. By 2012, a second wave of companies and clinics had emerged, usually located in developing countries where medicine is less regulated and offering stem cell therapies on a medical tourismmodel. Like the first wave companies and clinics, they made similar strong, but unsubstantiated, claims, mai…
See also
• Autologous stem-cell transplantation
• Cardiovascular Cell Therapy Research Network (CCTRN)
• Fetal tissue implant
• Induced pluripotent stem cell
External links
• EuroStemCell: types of stem cells and their uses